Pornography and US Law Essay Example for Free

Pornography and US Law Essay In Catherine Mackinnon’s book â€Å"Only Words† she describes U. S law as a very strong indictment of a law system in conflict with itself. The book is divided and is a collection of three essays. The first one is a heavy and emotional criticism of pornography. The other two essays evaluate and compare pornography and sexual harassment with racial discrimination and abuse. She defines pornography as â€Å"explicit sexual material that subordinates women† (page 13). She argues that ‘pornography is sex’, as viewed by the American law, that only views it as a possible cause of injury, instead of an act of sexual discrimination that promotes sexual inequality. She holds that like other kinds of racial and hate speeches, it should be totally banned because it contributes heavily in the degradation, subordination and abuse of women in general. Mackinnon says even if pornography is a form of speech, this does not mean that it cannot be controlled and regulated by the government. She lashes out at the people who believe pornography and other acts of harassment and hate propaganda should be protected by law. Mackinnon argues that that pornography, harassment messages and racial speeches eventually do the same thing, which is ‘enact the abuse’. Porn, she says, lowers the dignity and self esteem of women and fuels the acts by â€Å"sexual harassers, wife beaters, child molesters, rapists and clients of prostitutes† (page 17). The first amendment promotes the problems the fourteenth amendment was supposed to fix. Mackinnon shows a society that is extremely hypocritical. Her words in the book have encompassed real abuse, directed at her as a woman; she has really tried to prove her point. Mackinnon believes that we need to change the first amendment in order to balance it out with the fourteenth amendment on issues concerning free speech and protection of equality. She is campaigning for the â€Å"new model in which free speech does not most readily protect the activities of Nazis, Klansmen and pornographers, while doing nothing for their victims† (page 32). She commended two Canadian court decisions which promoted the rights of people negatively affected by pornography and hate speeches and propaganda. Word that involve issues such as bribes, fixing of prices and segregation of facilities are treated as acts of law, but words or pictures target issues involving race and sex are not treated as acts of law, and that is why the courts end up permitting pornography in our societies. She shows how lawyers and judges have used the first amendment to justify the heinous acts of pornographers and racist individuals into political speech. She says that if words have ever been recognized as actions it is in situations concerning sexual harassment. She laments that the courts have reduced their effectiveness by overturning universities’ restraints of discriminatory and sexual speeches on campus by throwing out a complaint brought forward by a female shipyard worker who was harassed by having been shown pornography, which is a form of speech that is protected in the first amendment. In fact these words and pictures are protected by law explained as ‘the free and open exchange of ideas’, even reproduced for viewing. Mackinnon says that what the law is concerned with is not what the word does but what the consequences of the word is, the harassment, racism and hate speeches is showing the differences between the different social groups, the power one group has over another. Mackinnon through studies in workplaces, pornographers, on college campuses and others she shows these very discriminatory acts are protected by law as free speech; equality will only be seen and treated as a word. Mackinnon brings to the open many of the contradictions she has been saying in the previous essays, she says that â€Å"the law of equality and the law of freedom of speech are on a collision course in this country† (page 47). Mackinnon does a good job in showing the ignorance and shallow thinking of many defenders of pornography. The book is a passionate and eloquent plea to Americans to be able to see beyond the doctrines made normal by society, in particular concerning pornography and racial and hate speeches. She says that Americans suffer from obsession of expressive freedom to the trauma of the McCarthy era. Her arguments show that in some levels, pornography may be restricted, but it has not yet shown reason to be restricted. She later confuses by emphasizing that some of them are made from â€Å"actual child abuse and actual rape and tortures† (page 56). Certain weaknesses are evident in the book. First of all, she should have devoted more space for the definition of pornography so that it would have been applicable in law. Another weakness is the vague separation of debating and expressing intolerable ideas. These prevent from having clearly defined boundaries. What she fails to bring out in her book is the other side of free speech, the importance of free speech in an independent society like political accountability, self determination among others. Catherine Mackinnon’s views do have pros and cons. Her view that pornography should be controlled by the government I believe is a good thing. Pornography has really led to degradation of the society and this will reduce if it is controlled. To some extent it does lead to subordination of women leading to more cases of aggression towards women, it eventually ‘enacts the abuse’. Her suggestion that amendments should be made to the constitution to be able to defend those affected by pornography I believe is also a good thing. Campaigning for the new model that free speech does not protect the activities of those using the right of free speech to justify their actions is also a good idea. Some of the abuses of sexual inequality are regarded as free speech hence not seen as acts of sexual abuse. Lawyers and judges have used this to justify some of the issues affecting the society such as hate speeches, pornography and racial discrimination. Some of the cons is that she uses very few words to explain the definition of pornography, she should have taken more time define her view of pornography. I believe that pornography should be regulated and have to agree with Catherine Mackinnon. Pornography has caused serious consequences to the society in general and therefore should be controlled. The pornographers have the freedom to do a lot and they are protected by the constitution. To some extent it does lead to subordination of women, hence pornography should be controlled.

Concepts Of Consumer Behaviour And Mobile Phones Marketing Essay

Concepts Of Consumer Behaviour And Mobile Phones Marketing Essay Mobile phone occupies a fundamental place in peoples daily life. It has become one of the most important tools for personal communication across the globe during the past fifteen years. Consumer behavior is the study of when, why, how and where people do or do not buy products (Sandhusen; Richard, 2000). One of the things that can be categorized as both needs and desires is mobile phone. This chapter introduces the concept of Consumer Behaviour and shows the various components applicable to the mobile phones purchase in Mauritius. This will include the key factors influencing the Mauritians buying behaviour for mobile phones. The different criteria consumers consider in their buying behaviour will also be exemplified. Concepts of Consumer Behaviour and Mobile Phones In todays world consumer behaviour is one of the most fascinating topics. Consumer is the ultimate user of every product, without any consumer there is no market as such (Baker, 2004). Consumers are considered the king therefore it is very essential to study the behaviour of consumers. Blackwell et al. (2001) described consumer behaviour as the activities, in which people acquire, consume and dispose products and services. In the same view, Kundi et al (2008) stated that consumer behavior refers to the mental and emotional process and the observable behavior of consumers during searching, purchasing and post consumption of a product or services. McGraw-Hill (2005) defined consumer buying behaviour as the behaviour in the quest to satisfy needs which products and services were acquired to satisfy these personal consumption needs. Customers make purchases in order to satisfy needs. According to Christ (2009) some of these needs are basic and must be filled by everyone on the planet whi le others are not required for basic survival and vary depending on the person. It probably makes more sense to classify needs that are not a necessity as wants or desires. On the other hand, Peter and Olson, (1993) mentioned that interactions between the peoples emotions, moods, affection and specific feelings is called consumer behavior, in other words in environmental events which they exchange ideas and benefits each is called consumer behavior . Figure 1: Influential factors of consumer behaviour Source: Kotler Armstrong, 2008 By understanding consumer behaviour deeply, different authors have given different information about the consumer behaviour and how consumer buys the products. Consumer behavior involves the psychological process that consumers go through in recognizing needs, findings ways to solve these needs, making purchase decisions, interpret information, make plans and implement these plans (Perner, 2008). Consumer behaviour towards mobile phones The emerging technologies, one that promises greater variety in applications, highly improved usability, and speedier networking (Robert Godwin-Jones, 2008). Mobile phone is a constant companion to many people. Mobile phone which is fundamentally a communication device has undergone several transformations making its functionalities transcending the traditional voice communication between two individuals (Kushchu, 2007). Mobile technology is a daily communication device that allows people to communicate worldwide within seconds. Different researchers have diverse view about mobile phones. Xiaowei Huang (2011) identified mobile phone as one of the cultural commodities in todays world. According to Bassett (2006), today, the functions of mobile phones are not only for making and receiving calls, but also for providing other functions such as mailboxes, digital cameras, video recorders, personal radios, personal organizers, and even MP3 players. It is sometimes assuming that the mobile becomes each of these objects rather than simulating them, or re-mediating them; that it takes on the most advanced characteristics of each media stream it subsumes, and also assumes the development trajectory, or even the nature, or ontology, of these media (Bassett 2006). Nowadays mobile phone users are more adaptive, definitive, and subjective to how they use the communication device (Murni Mahmud et al, 2010). Mobile phone is not only a medium for communication but an entertainment device, an educative tool. Consumers used the technology as designed by the designers to satisfy different purposes beyond the conception of the designer (Carroll et al., 2002; Bar et al., 2007). Mobile technology were used and interpreted by users of mobile phones in their distinctive ways rather than how the designer had conceptualised the use of the mobile phones. Likewise mobile phone usage became more meaningfully through how the technology is used, the purposes it serves, and the context of its use through choice of functions and features (Okabe, 2004; Lindqvist and Svensson, 2007; Wirth et al., 2008). Overview of the Mauritian Mobile Phone market The Republic of Mauritius, a small island state with a population of 1.3 million inhabitants, is nestled in the middle of the Indian Ocean. Mauritius was the first country to launch cellular operations in the Southern Hemisphere on 29 May 1989 (Minges, Gray Tayob, 2004). Mauritius has been the first with the many telecommunication innovations in the African continent, who aims to be known as a cyber island. Telecommunication had an early beginning in Mauritius, the first telephone line was installed in 1883, seven after the invention of the telephone. The privatisation of telecommunication industries since the mid-1990s, most mobile phone markets have been characterised by competitive industries due to the presence of more than one operator (Bailard, 2009; ITU, 2011). The result is more affordable and reliable mobile services. People also do not have to wait for long periods of time to have a mobile phone installed. The Mauritian telecommunications sector was fully liberalized in Ja nuary 2003 pursuant to the General Agreement on Trade in Services (GATS) commitment made by Mauritius in 1998 (WTO, 2012). Currently there are 3 main mobile phone operators in Mauritius namely Orange, Emtel and MTML. Orange is the market leader, while Emtel and MTML are the challengers. Emtel first launched the 4G Mobile in Mauritius, Tassarajen Chedumbrum Pillay, Minister of Information Technology and Communication (ICT), which officially launched the 4G mobile phone service on May 29, 2012 (Lexpress.mu, 2012). Mobile penetration rates have exploded from a mere 1.05 percent in 1995 to a staggering 92.79 percent by the end of 2010. Mobile cellular subscribers rose by 9.6% to reach 1,190,900 in 2010 from 1,086,700 in 2009. Prepaid subscribers increased by 8.5% from 1,013,000 in 2009 to 1,099,200 in 2010. Mobidensity or the number of mobile cellular phones per 100 inhabitants increased by 9.2% from 85.0 in 2009 to 92.8 in 2010 (Central Statistics Office, 2011). Figure 2: Mobile cellular subscriptions in Mauritius C:UsersRachnaDesktopchart.png Source: World Bank, 2011 Consumers purchase preferences and satisfaction level for mobile phones For perspective of globalization we cannot change the system of tastes and preferences of Consumers. Another instance demonstrating the ignorance of local tastes in the wake of globalization features the multinational mobile phone makers, Nokia had tasted success with its soap-bar designed phones and ceased producing the flip phones that consumers found irritating to use (Zaccai, 2005). Every consumer has their own tastes and preferences. So, every consumers opinions and preferences are different from one another. It has also been pointed that many decision strategies used by consumers can change due to person-, context-, and task-specific factors (Dhar, Nowlis and Sherman, 2000; Swait and Adamowicz, 2001). Consumers tend to utilize different approaches to make choices. Mobile phone choice and use has also been found to be related to prior consumption styles. According to a survey of Finnish young people aged 16-20, it was found that mobile phone choice and especially usage is consis tent with respondents general consumption styles (Wilska, 2003). Customer value perceptions are found to significantly impact and drive consumers intentions in terms of repurchase intent, word-of-mouth referrals, customer commitment and loyalty (e.g. Brady and Cronin, 2001; Cronin et al., 2000; Duman and Mattila, 2005; Christou, 2003). In general, a common distinction to be made is that while the utilitarian goods usually are primary instrumental and functional, hedonic goods provide fun, pleasure and excitement. It has been noted that many choices have both utilitarian and hedonic features (Batra and Ahtola, 1990), and thus it can also be proposed that the choice between mobile phones has both utilitarian (e.g., communication, time planning) and hedonic (e.g., games, camera) features. Quite similarly, consumer choice can also be approached from the perspective of conscious and non conscious choice (e.g., Fitzsimons et al., 2002). On the other hand, direct marketing activities have big impact on every consumer, every company knows about the behavior of every consumer in the market. This theory helps for the organization and sub-organizations to know the consumer behavior in different market environments, taste and preferences of the consumer behavior (Thomas, 2004). Kalpana and Chinnadurai (2006) found that adverti sement play a dominant role in influencing the customers but most of the customers are of opinion that promotional strategies of cellular companies are more sale oriented rather than customer oriented. Nandhini (2001) examined that attitude of the respondents using cell phones was not influenced by either education or occupation and income Usage functions and features as a key driver of consumer acceptance of mobile phones Another important aspect that has risen from different studies is that consumers purchase new phones due to the fact that their existing ones capacity is not appropriate referring to the idea that new technology features such as built-in cameras, better memory, radio, more developed messaging services, and color displays are influencing consumer decisions to acquire new models (In-Stat/MDR, 2002; Liu, 2002; OKeefe, 2004; Karjaluoto et al., 2005). Thus it can be expected that new features will influence the intention to acquire new mobile phones. The consumer will respond according to the product quality and reliability, the fundamental understanding of products is necessary to understand the product features, products reliability and product benefits (Baker, 2004). For example, researchers like Chang and OSullivan (2005) showed that concrete feedback provided when keys are pressed offers a good satisfaction experience among the mobile phone users whilst Lesher et al. (1998) and Nesba t (2003) re-designed the keypads to expedite text entry. Moreover, studies involving elderly users found them to prefer large, clear and bright screens (Kurniawan et al., 2006; Nizam et al, 2008). Mobile phones are often criticized as being too small to be held and handled (Balakrishnan and Yeow, 2007). In a recent paper, V. Balakrishnan (2011) investigated mobile phone messaging satisfaction among Malaysian youths. It was found that mobile phone users have mixed feelings towards text entry speed, keypad design and health-lower extremity and thus, they are unsure about their overall SMS satisfaction. Hence this indicates that consumers lay more emphasis on the design of the mobile phone while choosing which cell phone to buy. The younger the consumer the more hedonistic features consumers tend to value in mobile phones (Wilska, 2003). Though, in Africa, the use of SMS and chat services has been widely accepted, but people are still reluctant to engage in other mobile data services, such as MMS, mobile banking and web browsing amongst others (Brown, Gordon, Janik Meyer, 2005). The major portion of the population uses SMS, chat services and some leisure based services such as ring tones and games but they are still reluctant to engage in other more advanced data services (Goldstuck, 2005; Bouwman et al., 2006). Mobile value-added services are digital services added to mobile phone networks other than voice services, including short message service, games, entertainments, web surfing, software applications and functions for achieving specific purposes (e.g. performing electronic transactions (Kuo et al., 2009). Among all m-commerce applications, mobile value-added services have been recognized as having a remarkably promising future in the telecom service market because customer values, such as time-critical needs and arrangements, spontaneous needs and decisions, entertainment needs, and efficiency needs and ambitions, can be met by using these services (Anckar and DIncau, 2002). Consequently, mobile phone technological advances allow customers to participate in the mobile services development, design, production and delivery process, mobile phone users increasingly demand for affordable and reliable services that correspond exactly to their specific individual needs, lifestyle and preferen ces (Sigala, 2002). Generally speaking, a positive attitude with regard to new information technologies can be found among the younger, male and high-income categories (Brown and Vemnkatesh, 2005; Gefen and Straub, 1997; Ilie et al., 2005; Rice and Katz, 2003; Wei and Lo, 2006). Not all types of mobile phone are successful in entering the market because some types of the mobile phone have a negative perception of user (Jaya Suteja and Stephany Tedjohartoko, 2011). While some people find using mobile devices to conduct transactions relatively easy, others experience difficulty with the small screen size and small keypad. Data input becomes a problem, and this can lead to wasted time, errors and frustration experienced by users, hence making usability less attractive (Chen Frolick, 2004).However, the mobility of mobile devices also increases the risk of losing them (Tarasewich, 2003). Mobile users are worried about the safety of their devices as these can easily be lost or stolen. Branding as a major factor affecting purchase of mobile phones Brand image is perceptions about a brand as reflected by the brand associations held in consumer memory (Keller, 2003). Brand is considered as a warranty not only of the quality and performance but also of the difference and emotional relationship with the product (Bahmanziari et al., 2003; Jiang, 2004). Moreover, the technological advancement lead to product features becoming more and more similar, as such consumers are often incapable or reluctant to distinguish between brands on rational attributes alone (Temporal and Lee, 2001). Likewise Riquelme (2001) examined how much self knowledge consumers have when making choice between different mobile phone brands based upon six key attributes (telephone features, connection fee, access cost, mobile-to-mobile phone rates, call rates and free calls). The research showed that consumers with prior experience about a product can predict their choices relatively well, although respondents tended to overestimate the importance of features, call rates and free calls and underestimate the importance of a monthly access fee, mobile-to-mobile phones rates and the connection fee. Brand image acts as information prompt (Bhat and Reddy, 1998). Moreover, brands can accelerate consumers information transmission (Kotler, 1999). Brand image helps to create positive attitudes and feelings. Brand effects for mobiles have been investigated by various authors. Luca Petruzzellis (2010) studied the hedonic and utilitarian value dimensions to better understand the brand effect. Previous research has shown that consumer brand image would affect consumers opinions on brand equity, leading to brand loyalty. Brand equity significantly affected purchase intention (Chen, 2010). Brand equity is referred to the marketing results that accrue to a product with its brand name as compared to those that would ensue if the same product did not have the brand name (Aaker, 1991; Ailawadi et al., 2003; Keller, 2003). The brand equity influences consumer-level constructs such as attitudes, awareness, image, and knowledge and company related outcomes like market share, prices, revenues and cash flow (Ailawadi et al., 2003). Accordingly brand equity drives to brand loyalty. Likewise, Chaudhuri and Holbrook (2001) added that affective responses to brands are of utmost importance as brand effect is a strong driver of brand loyalty. Additionally, in the context of the mobile communications industry, Baker et al. (2010) examine the importance of brand equity in generating greater consumer demand for mobile communications products/services. In a similar vein, Jurisic and Azevedo (2011) address the need to increase brand equity by building and maintaining customer-brand relationships, which can be done by valuing the issues that customers value the most in order to increase their emotional attachments to the brand. Personality influences on mobile phones Mobile phones have been recognised as a form of self-expressive identity (Mannetti, Pierro, Livi, 2002; Walsh White, 2007) with many mobile phone users personalizing their phones to express their identity by decorating their phones and having unique ring-tones (Goggin, 2006; Katz Sugiyama, 2005). Self-identity has also been found to predict level of mobile use, with use increasing as self-identification as a mobile phone user increases (Walsh White, 2007). These findings suggest it may be worthwhile to assess whether self-identity is related to the level of involvement that people have with their mobile phone to improve our understanding of the connection between material objects and behaviour. As the mobile phone supports interpersonal interaction, mobile phone use might be a function of personality (Sarah Butt James G. Phillips, 2008). Historically, a mobile phone has been pricy with the market dominated by business users (Kendall, 1997). It has been considered a status symbol for the rich and famous during the early 1990s all over the world. The mobile phone is, however, more than a communication tool or piece of furniture: it is an extension of their person, and expresses their identity and selfhood in a variety of ways, including both how it is used and how it is worn (Helen Haste, 2005). It has been argued that a young persons mobile phone is a central expression of their identity (Brown et al. 2002). Young people are increasingly using and adapting mobile phones not only to interact with their own worlds, but to create and structure their worlds (Spero Stone, 2004 Referral influences for mobile phone buyers behaviour Consumer behaviour research on consumers social and interpersonal environment has indicated that the mobile phone consumers final purchasing decision will also be influenced by reference groups (such as friends, family, work associates and etc.) on whether to buy a specific product and which brand or model to choose among competing alternatives (Moschis, 1976). Wooten and Reed (2004) suggested that consumers with high susceptibility to normative influence tend to use protective self-presentation to avoid undesirable disapproval. In the studies of Jiaqin Yang et al. (2007), reference groups have a significant influence on US mobile phone consumers in their purchasing behavior. The target population for the survey was Chinese people, they consume similar brands or products that their peers consuming. In comparison, individualism is a popular trait among US consumers, so most American consumers focus more on their personal needs and less concerning about the opinion of others. It can be further supported by a recent research (Mourali et al., 2005). The research of Tiana Tucker (2011) illustrate that friends were the most influential people for young adults when looking to purchase a new mobile phone. Sernovitz (2009) described word of mouth marketing as all about consumers sharing their experiences of products by ways other than direct marketing to consumers. When an idea is transferred to the consumers and they send it to fellow customers, that is, a form of real word of mouth communication. Word of mouth seems desirable to achieve positive perception and thus preference for a brand in the customers mind (Sweeney et al., 2008). One way that offers a distinct point of advantage is positive word of mouth (WOM). Early studies suggested that WOM is nine times as effective as traditional advertising in converting unfavorable or neutral predispositions into positive attitudes (e.g., Day, 1971). More recently, Hogan et al. (2004) showed that WOM can triple the effectiveness of advertising. Table 1: Types of Reference Groups Type of Reference Group Definition Example Formal Clearly defined structure and membership Soccer club Informal Has no formal rules Families, friends and peer groups Primary Has face-to-face interaction Students in a class Membership Members of a certain group and model behaviour on others in the group Members of a church or a social club Non-membership Do not have membership but may still model their behaviour on members of this group Non-member of church may still be influenced by members behaviour: helping those in need Aspirational Groups that people aspire to belong Movie stars and famous personalities (Ryk Neethling) Dissociative Groups that you avoid or reject Gangs Source: Cant et al. (2006); Strydom, et al. (2000) Mobile technology within the social and occupational spheres influence buying patterns Social needs are the needs for social interaction of an individual that represent the need for communicating with friends, family and affiliation such as group membership, clubs, churches and work affiliations (Tikkanen, 2009). Social need is one of the determinants of consumers dependency on mobile phones (smartphones) because the mobile phones have become much more versatile, allowing consumers increased usage for communication and maintaining relationships between and among individuals (Lippincott, 2010). This is supported by the Mafe and Blas (2006) study which found that consumers high dependency on smartphones is positively correlated with consumers future purchase behaviour. Currently, TV-individual interaction through text messages includes participation in programmes in order to vote, downloading a variety of content, expressing opinions and appearing on screen, taking part in draws or competitions and even TV screen chats (Beyer et al., 2007). Mobile phones have in the firs t place been enhancing friendships and family interaction and have resulted in the tightening of social cohesion among close friends and family members (Ling Horst, 2011). In Wei and Los (2006) research, it was found that consumers were highly engaged with smartphones when there was a positive correlation between social needs and dependency. Consumers with a high need to socialize and be connected were found to increase their usage rate on mobile phones because Bodker et al. (2009) claimed that interaction or social networking has been embedded and conveyed through the mobile phones itself. Consequently, consumers with a lower level of social needs are expected to have a lower usage rate of smartphone (Morgan, 2010). According to Hundley and Shyles (2010), consumers fulfils their social need by engaging with mobile phones and have concerns about being socially disconnected, uninformed and excluded from friends and their social activities. Research has consistently shown that many young people believe mobile phone use enhances social inclusion by allowing them to remain in contact with friends and peers at all times (see, e.g., Ling, 2004; Peters ben A llouch, 2005; Wei Lo, 2006). Additionally, some mobile phone users report feeling loved and valued when they receive contact on their mobile phone (Walsh, White, Young, 2009) and that positive messages are stored on mobile phones so they can be re-read when the user is feeling low (Srivastava, 2005). Young people are heavy users of mobile phones; they are the majority of the population who users mobile phone the most (Dickinger, et al., 2004). As such the younger generation is keener to have high technology devices, for example latest technology mobile phones than the older population. Mobile phones are more as a fashion accessory to the young generation than a communication device (Robins, 2003). Mobile devices are more likely to be used in the presence of other people and may even be seen as a fashion accessory (Lu et al., 2005, 2008). More public use of these portable systems may mean that users are more open to circumstances of social judgement, criticism and censure. Young people are using and adapting mobile phones more and more not only to interact with their own worlds, but to create and structure their worlds (Spero Stone, 2004). Mobile phone is now a common part of youngsters lifestyle. Research showed that mobile phones enable young people to be associated to their fa mily and to their peers and allows them even more freedom to connect and explore. The impact of culture on mobile phone purchase Culture is identified as the collective mental programming of individuals in an environment (Hofstede, 1980). This means that culture is not genetically inherited, and it cannot exist on its own but acquired from the society. An individuals behavior is a result of that individuals cultural value system for a particular context which are changed and developed over time (Luna and Gupta, 2001). According to various authors, culture is believed to have a great influence on consumer behaviour. Culture has a profound influence on how and why consumers purchase range products and services, (Blackwell et al., 2001). Cultural groups influence the consumption patterns. Moreover, ethnic background and geographical locations play a large part in culture and establishing culturally acceptable and unacceptable consumer behavior. Subcultures exist with culture groups. According to researchers obtaining a mobile phone is a milestone that indicates success, not only financially but also culturally in term of the integration within society, (Castells et al. 2007). On the other hand, Marquardt (1999) has claimed that mobile phones affect social relationships and this is a disintegration of communities. Mobile phone usage has resulted in greater electronic interactions between friends and family at the expense of face to face interaction which have been dramatically reduced. Consequently, it could be proposed that mobile phones are changing individual cultural norms and values (Rauch, 2005). Conversely, HUANG Xiaowei (2011) argued that the mobile phone, with its dramatic development and peerless functions, is not a myth but a consequence of social development. The study from Choi and Geistfeld (2004) showed that functionality design, feature images and brand images are highly positive correlated with cultural characteristics of the users. Research showed that in some of Shanzhai mobile companies develop special models of mobiles for sub-cultural group consumers, for example, for Buddhists they have gold plated mobile with Buddha picture as inter face and sutra (Jun Li, 2010). Subcultures comprise of nationalities, religions, racial groups, and geographic regions. Further, Lee and Kacen (2008) discovered that subjective cultures tend to influence the buying intention of consumers. Gay et al. (1997) defined culture as the what-everybody-knows about the world without consciously knowing where or when they first learned it. The research work by Monthathip Srikes et al (2009) demonstrated that differences in national culture impact on the buyer behaviour of the Thai and British consumers when purchasing a mobile phone. For example, for Thai consumers, it is important to note that social acceptance acts as the main buying decision factor alongside their cultural attributes. In contrast, a strong correlation occurred between buying Intention self- direction and price -hedonism with British consumers (Monthathip Srikes, Panos Louvieris, Catherine Collins, 2009). Mobile phone choice as a learning device Mobile technology is dominating the world rapidly. In the educational system, Ling (2003) argues that communication systems between students have always existed. Students have always communicated to each other by passing notes, whispering, using hand signals, and the like (Ling 2003). Furthermore, the use of the mobile phone to send SMS eliminates the physical note, thus allowing for discretion-the message cannot be seen or read by others (Ling, 2003). Mobile learning devices such as mobile phones now have the emerging potential to achieve a large scale impact because of their portability, versatile features, and low cost (Roschelle, 2003). Many researchers have analysed the effectiveness of mobile phones. Taher Bahrani (2011) believes that mobile phones offer promising opportunities for learning in informal setting outside the classroom borders. Moreover, the increase in processing power, storage memory, and connectivity through the internet or the Bluetooth technology have resulted in an extensive growth in media richness that can provide access to highly personalized learning environment for everyone in informal setting (Pea Maldonado, 2006). As the matter of fact, the conventional mobile phone is more than just a device to make a call. In recent years, there have been many studies and projects using the relevant mobile technologies such as mobile phones or ipods for both formal and informal language learning (Chinnery, 2006; Kadyte, 2003; Kiernan Aizawa, 2004; Levy Kennedy, 2005; Norbrook Scott, 2003; Paredes et al., 2005; Thornton House, 2005; Ogata Yano, 2004).Mobile phones can provide the learner with frequent engagement opportunities to language problems all the time increasing the learning chances by allowing the learner to use many sources of authentic audio/visual and print materials once motivated (Beaudin et al. 2006). Nevertheless, there is no formal theory of mobile language learning developed to date (Joseph Uther, 2006), but still emerging mobile technologies increasingly suggest potential language learning solutions and environments that will be highly interactive, ubiquitous, and convenient. On the other hand, in countries such as India, cell phone ownership is growing fast. As a result, many educational projects are taking advantage of that development to create applications that run on mobile phones (Robert Godwin-Jones, 2008). However, research carried out by Ozhan (2004) reports that as educational level increases, the level of negative attitude toward mobile phones increases also. In the same vein, Pressley (2002), reading is about constructing meaning from a text so that the goal of reading goes beyond decoding and recognizing words. Also, reading is purposeful only when a learner can build meaning from a text and connect it to his or her everyday life. A lack of comprehension leads to negative attitudes and a loss of motivation (Graves et al., 2003). Additionally, Murphy (2006) also emphasizes the need to consider cultural and social factors when designing mobile learning activities. Similarly, Cobcroft et al. (2006) suggested to be well aware of the limitations a nd challenge, bearing in mind the potential impact on transforming current cultures and practices. Price as an influential factor in the purchase on Mobile Phones Besides new technological advances price was the most influential factor affecting the choice of a new mobile phone model. Price of the phone has b

Polymorphism In Object Oriented Design Information Technology Essay

Polymorphism In Object Oriented Design Information Technology Essay In large scale organizations measuring software quality is complex for the development of software product. High quality software would enhance the potential reuse of the software and reduce the software maintenance cost. Many of the presently available software metrics are applicable when the particular software product Polymorphism has been assured to improve reusability technique which is achieved through the POF, Polymorphism factor derived from the MOOD (Metrics for Object oriented design) metric. II BACKGROUND Software metrics are considered as key facts or ways to measure any kind of software product from the starting phase to the obsolete phase. These software metrics are available and used throughout the project to assess the software quality, cost estimation and time consuming to develop a software project. It is declared that the Traditional metrics are not applicable to Object Oriented design since Object Oriented Software metrics are applicable to class level and other characteristics such as abstraction, inheritance, modularity and Polymorphism. These metrics convey the software engineer how the modifications can be made in order to reduce the cost effectively and time consuming while designing software and to improve the quality, continuing capability and profitability of the software. In [7] nearly 100 metrics had already given to find out the complexity of the software code and in [8] they were more than 150 metrics are proposed in the field of Object oriented paradigm. The Object Oriented software metrics are differentiated into two types namely Static and Dynamic. Dynamic and Static code analysis are done during source code reviews. Static metrics are derived from the measurement on static analysis of the software code. Static code analysis is performed without executing any of the code. Static analysis is better to understand the security problems within the program code and can easily identify nearly 85% of the flaws in the programming code. Dynamic metrics are derived from the measurement on dynamic analysis of the software code. Dynamic analysis is based on the studying of the code behavior during execution. Earlier major work was focused on static metrics but more attention has given to Dynamic metrics as the results are derived at run time. In this binding it can be substitute to forms or objects that are related to polymorphism factor at the time of execution. III FORMS OF POLYMORPHISM Polymorphism is considered as one of the salient features of Object oriented Programming languages. This feature mainly deals with reusability technique. In object oriented analysis Polymorphism roots from message passing, substitutability and inheritance which yields to is-a relationship. This similarity may allow achieving variety of technologies like code sharing and reusability. Mainly Polymorphism is differentiated into 5 types in Object Oriented paradigm like generics, pure polymorphism, overloading, deferred methods and overriding, Both Polymorphic classes and methods are known as Generics. This paper mainly focuses on three definitions mainly Overloading, Overriding and pure polymorphism. Pure polymorphism is achieved by implementing same function to different types of arguments. Method overriding is possible when the implementation suggested in the super class is modified in the sub class. Next to that method overloading is achieved when different methods having same name. Method overloading is also known as Adhoc Polymorphism. The differentiation on Polymorphic behaviors in C++ are related to runtime binding decisions which are overriding methods or virtual functions and compile time linked decisions which are over loading functions. From this design polymorphic functions are categorize into different types. The Polymorphic member functions can formerly defined as where in a new declaration these characteristics may alter while the other remains the same. This will generate different types of Polymorphic implementations that affect the quality on Object Oriented paradigm. A) Pure Polymorphism This behavior is also known as parametric overloading where it can be identified similar name with different signature which is inside the class scope. This behavior inside a class scope is identified by implementing more functions with other signatures. B) Static Polymorphism In Object Oriented design methods related to similar name but with other method signature can be identified in other classes related and which are unlinked by inheritance relationships, which is also known as Overriding behavior. In C++ they can be categorized overriding methods into two different forms like virtual and non-virtual methods. The non -virtual overriding functions can be identified by other signatures which are related to other declarations. As they are based on Static binding can be called this from static Polymorphism. C) Dynamic Polymorphism This behavior has the capability to use the similar name with similar signature in an overriding function. In C++ it is called as adhoc polymorphism as it invokes run time decisions at execution by the compiler. Combination and Specialization are the two features derived from the Object Oriented design which results Dynamic and Static Polymorphism. The polymorphism forms discussed above consists single perspective where each pattern may be identified and combined to achieve class inheritance relationships. Fig 1. Simple Inheritance. Simple Inheritance states that one Parent can have many children, but each child can only have one Parent. Fig 1 illustrates that A is a Parent, B and C are Children to Parent A. Likewise P and Q are children to Parent B and M and N are children to Parent C Table 1 shows the derived set of metrics where it can be taken as the combination of dynamic and static polymorphism forms with respective to the simple inheritance relationship [2]. IV POLYMORPHISM FORMS METRICS Metrics Definition SPD Static Polymorphism in Descendants. DPA Dynamic Polymorphism in Ancestors DPD Dynamic Polymorphism in Descendants SPA Static Polymorphism in Ancestors. OVO Overloading in Standalone classes Table 1 In Object Orientation paradigm, generic methods and classes are able to decrease the description of newly created objects and classes. The OVO (Overloading in Stand-alone classes) metric is designed to calculate the intensity of method genericity in a class scope by numbering and calculating the function members which designed the same function. The Static and Dynamic metrics are designed to calculate each Static and Dynamic binding separately in Object oriented paradigm. Example 1 Class P { void a (int k); void a (float l); void a (int i , int l); void b (); void b (int n); } Class Q : public P { void a (); } Class R : public Q { void a (); void b(); } Class S { void a (); } A) Data Validation In order to validate Polymorphism metrics, product metric validation methodology is very useful to validate other suits of Object Oriented design metrics. This validation represents the capability of polymorphism metrics to predict the fault prone functions. Here the data is gathered from an open multi-agent systems development environment, known as LALO. [2] LALO has been maintaining its development since from 1993 at CRIM (Computer Research Institute for Montreal) where it approximately includes 40k source lines of code and 85 C++ classes. Here the analysis has been obtained from the Source Lines of Code, information about its classes and fault related data. B) Descriptive Statistics Table 2 shows the analysis for descriptive statistics which are related to Polymorphism metrics. Due to the reason that LALO objects contains very low and minor inheritance depth and week variance has been calculated from the descendants of polymorphism namely SPD and DPD. Here it is confirmed that week distribution of polymorphic forms is due to low usage of inheritance in LALO classes. Metric Max Min Mean Median StdDev OVO 15.00 0.00 3.47 3 2.71 SPA 18.00 0.00 3.54 1 4.63 SPD 111.00 0.00 3.73 0 13.87 DPA 5.00 0.00 0.73 0 1.29 DPD 28.00 0.00 0.77 0 3.35 SP 111.00 0.00 7.28 3.5 13.90 DP 28.00 0.00 1.50 0 3.49 Table 2 C) Polymorphism metrics and MOOD metrics Table 3 shows the correlation among the five polymorphism metrics and POF (Polymorphism factor) measurement derived from the MOOD (Metrics for Object oriented Design) metrics [6]. As per the analysis the POF from the MOOD metrics, SPA and DPA metrics from the Polymorphism metrics are maximum correlated as they captured the same forms of polymorphism namely overriding. OVO, SPD, DPD and POF have very poor correlation. OVO SP DP SPA SPD DPA DPD Pof .06 .50 .42 .98 .02 .72 .00 Table 3 D) Correlation between Polymorphism metrics. SPA and DPA calculates the count of member functions that are overridden between a class scope and its ancestors. This states that dynamic polymorphism and static polymorphism have similar quality impact in ancestors relationship. Since DP and SP are counted from the metrics SPA, DPD, DPA and SPD where DPA and SPA are nearly correlated and DPD and SPD calculations are not statically specified in the dataset and the expectations are SP would be maximum correlated with DP. SPA SPD DPA DPD SP DP OVO .06 .05 .04 .07 0 0 SPA 1.0 .03 .71 .00 .51 .42 SPD 1.0 .01 .67 .27 .13 DPA 1.0 .00 .43 .63 DPD 1.0 .22 .29 SP 1.0 .70 Table 4 F) Relation between Polymorphism metrics and Chidamber and Kemerer metrics. Here is the comparison between Chidamber and Kemerer (CK) metrics and Polymorphism metrics [9]. The six CK metrics are RFC Response for a Class. DIT Class Depth Inheritance Tree. CBO Coupling between Class. WMC Weighted Method per Class. NOC Number of Children. LCOM Lack of Cohesion among methods. a) DIT DIT is used to calculate maximum tree depth from class to root class. The high DIT has been found to lead more faults. However, more the tree depth, more the reusability factor because of method inheritance. Fig 2 Fig 3 Fig 4 Fig2 resembles simple inheritance where each parent can have more than one child but each child must have only one parent. In Fig3 P and Q are combined and inherited from Parent A and Fig4 shows high DIT as it illustrates high tree depth inheritance. b) NOC NOC counts the immediate sub-classes of a root class. As maximum DIT indicates the high tree depth, NOC counts the breath of the class hierarchy. High NOC increases the number of child classes, high reuse of the Base class is possible. High NOC has been found to lead low number of faults because of high reuse of Base class which is more desirable. Table 4 shows the values to compare only two CK metric represents a relation with two polymorphic metrics [2]. The highly related pair of metrics is NOC-SPD. Also the highly correlated metrics is DIT-SPA where these two relations are highly expected. Table4 Children in the classes are counted by NOC metric. Level of coupling is measured by SPD metric due to static Polymorphism having its descendants. Due to static polymorphism chances of having coupling is higher as greater the number of children. Inheritance depth tree is calculated in a class by using DIT metric. As per the static polymorphism, level of coupling with class R in Example 1 and its ancestors is measured by metric SPA. While measuring different forms of class dependencies in Polymorphism, it is observed that CBO represents a very low correlation with polymorphism metric which is calculating algorithm class coupling. Hence it is confirmed that the polymorphism metrics can get variety of variations of class scope coupling which are not highly captured by CBO metric [2]. A backward and forward logistic regression is performed while examine the relationship between CK metrics and Polymorphism metrics [2]. By combining these two Object oriented metrics a significant methodology related to fault prone class has been implemented. V REUSE, REUSEABILITY METRICS IN POLYMORPHISM As I discussed earlier, Reusability is the key concept to achieve Polymorphism, following are the metrics discussed under the concern of Reusability [1]. The key factor of developing and upgrading software by using the existing software has made our Engineers to focus more on systematic re-use where the organizations can make most benefit and get extensive advantage from the idea of reusability. A) Reuse and Reusability Metrics Reuse metric is obtained from number of efforts that takes place in the research area on economics of reuse. If the return on investment is positive then it can be analyzed that reuse is beneficial. It consists of maintaining the cost for reusing the libraries, modifying costs and reusable maintenance from the existing property, cost of searching, evaluating, identifying, integrating and selecting the potential articrafts. Different economic metrics has been introduced to measure the reuse metric which implements the cost benefit ratio. Durek and Gaffneys reuse metric based on economic factor is proposed and useful to measure the break -even point and the reusability cost. COCOMO based reuse model is used to calculate the total time that takes to implement the software with the functionality of reuse which is proposed by Gustafson and Balda [1]. Durek and Gaffneys reuse economic metric is represented as C= (b+E/n-1) R+1 Where C = Cost related to Software Development, usually less than 1. R = ratio of the reused code in the project. E = Cost to make code reusable, which is cost related to new code which is used to develop a component for reuse. B = reusing existing code in the project where the cost related to new code like adaption, searching and adaption cost. n=the number of reuses expected. As our interest is ultimately in measuring the cost but these metric needs the cost of creating the reused articrafts as input. B) Reuse Metric Level This reuse level metric is introduced by Frakes which implements threshold levels to gather and remove the items which are not reused very often. Suppose if the threshold level is 4 the object should be called 5 times for reuse. This metric also varies between the external and internal level. Total reuse level=Internal + External level. External reuse level=EU/T and Internal reuse level=IU/T. T=both internal and external items in the system. IU=number of reused external items EU=number of reused internal items. Each reused item which is EU and IU must have the values either 0 or 1.If the threshold level is less than the item reused then the value is always 1 or else it will be 0.This measure does not consider the number of items reused. Here this metric uses item instead of SLOC, as each item varies, some item would be large or small when compare to other items. In the later version of this metric, depending upon the size of the item, assigned a weight to each item. This is done because the threshold levels should be same in order to compare the projects. C) Measuring Polymorphism As the process would vary from execution to execution, the problem is with while measuring polymorphism, exactly what happens within an application. Example 2 List l; If(condition){ l=new ArrayList(); } else l=new Linked List(); l.add(); In Example 2, the Linked List implementation and the Array List implementation depends on the external condition. There is no prediction that the condition is always satisfied, with the implementation of the polymorphism. Dynamic analysis is the right way to measure polymorphism as it gathers the information at run time. Following is the metric that defines the amount of polymorphism has occurred [1]. PBI=UPD/Total Dispatches. Where PBI=Polymorphic Behavior Index. TD=UPD+NP. UPD= Polymorphic Dispatches that are unique NP=Non-polymorphic dispatches that are unique. TD=Total Dispatches. In the above example, List l=new Array List (); The List interface will declare the variable l and it is said to be Declared Interface. If the condition is true. Then Array List () is the Dispatched class in this Example. Both the Class and Interface are different and the relationship can be given as Conforms and implements. An interface might not directly implement by a class, it can be accessible through parent class. The actual method which is processed is the deepest inherited implementation of the method. Example 3 Class A{ void method 1(){} } Class B extends A{ B b=new B(); b.method1(); } The b.method1 () is dispatched to A.method1 () because it is the deepest inherited implementation method. Polymorphic Dispatch will be observed when the Dispatched Class and declared interface, both are different. Non -Polymorphic Dispatch is observed when the Dispatched Class is same as the declared interface. Example.4 Interface P{ a (); } Class Sample inherits P{ a();{} b();{} } Class Sample2 extends Sample{ b();{ super(); } } When Sample sp=new Sample(); sp.a(); The sp variable relates to a Sample object. The Sample class consists method a() implementation, so Sample.a() will be dispatched. The Dispatch class, Sample is same as the declared interface, so this is considered to be a Non-Polymorphic dispatch. Sample2 sp2=new Sample2 (); sp2.a(); Since sp2 relates to an object of type Sample2 the dispatched method is Sample a ().Although Sample2 not requires a method a() implementation ,Sample.a() is the deepest inherited implementation method. Sample is the class that is dispatched here. This is Polymorphic dispatch as the Dispatched class is Sample and declared interface is Sample 2. P sp3=new sample(); sp3.a(); Here in this case, since Sample.a() is dispatched, the Dispatched class is Sample and Declared interface is P . As Dispatched class Sample and Declared interface P both are different this is Polymorphic Dispatch. D) Inherited Method Call using Inherited Class. Sample sp4= new Sample2(); sp4.a(); Here the dispatched method is Sample. a () while declared interface of sp4 is Sample. So this is considered to be a Non polymorphic dispatch as both the declared interface and Dispatch class is same, Sample. Sample sp5=new Sample2(); sp5.b(); Here sp5 implements the inherited method b() from Sample2. Sample2.b() overrides the Samples b() and this inheritance substitutes the functionality from the Samples b() method, Here, dispatched method is Sample2.b() as it is the deepest implementation method . Hence it is known as Polymorphic dispatch as the Dispatch class is Sample2 and declared interface is Sample means both are different. ` VI INTERNAL AND EXTERNAL REUSE Software reuse is often differentiated as External reuse and internal reuse. Considering internal reuse, these are the calls made to the desired code that is previously mentioned for the given application. External reuse is considered when calling the code that is coming from external source to the application of the project. When comparing both the internal and external reuse, external is more beneficial than internal.But both internal and external reuse are been used, for instance if the developer reusing the same method rather than developing new methods which performs the same action. Internal methods are created by the application developers, which are defined as methods. Internal methods also include implementing the custom code extending the API and the API interface. When any method calls an internal method then internal method call is generated. Generally it happens internal methods calling to internal methods. Sometimes API will call these internal methods when these methods are passed as handlers into the API.As this external method to internal method calling is a strategy of application developers decision, these are still considered as an internal method call. External methods are obtained from external source where developers cannot modify it, which includes external libraries and API. Suppose if internal method calling an external method then call to the external method is generated. Here it must not be considered external to external method calling. Example 5 Class sample extends java.lang.Thread { void method p () { method q (); } void method q (String s) { System.out.println (This is an Example); } public void run () { method p (); } public static void main(String args[]) { this .start() } In Example 5 when the Sample class is executed, Java launcher calls the main () method. As the Sample class extends thread class and calling the start () function will insert the Thread class in Java Scheduler. As a consequence Java scheduler calls run () method, where the run () calls the method p (), which in turns calls the method q().method q() internally calls the System.out.println(). For instance when System.out.println () is executed, many internal API callings will happen like PrintWriter called by String Buffer. However these are not considered as external or internal method calls. VII TOOLS FOR SOFTWARE METRICS Fig 5 Process for Dynamic Metrics A) E-MTRACE The process of evaluating the Polymorphism metric is the comparison held in same domain of Polymorphism with two software applications, where it is manually determined by the source code to examine their reusability and reuse issues of performance. In order to avoid or remove unnecessary values like system method calling that is invoked by JVM there is a need of filter. The data which is filtered is examined to recognize non-polymorphic and also polymorphic dispatches from where the values are derived. The tool that is implemented to capture all this related information is known as E-MTRACE [1].This tool uses JVMTI, JVM Tool Interface that is examined and control s the process of execution running in the JVM (Java Virtual Machine). File Hook is used to insert the byte codes into methods.JVM is interrupted by the File Hook, when the JVM is loading java .class file to heap. The File Hook inserts the profiling instrumentation code and interprets .class file before calling any method. During runtime the instrumentation code can be inserted. The instrumentation code is executed while calling a method. The program stack is used by the instrumentation code to recognize the Dispatch class. Then to trace the Declared interface it uses the Local Variable Table. EMTRACE Analyzer tool would be processed, once the Dispatched class and the Declared Interface are identified, which evaluate the list of non polymorphic and polymorphic dispatches results. B) Resharper and CodeRush. Resharper and CodeRush are the tools available to extend the native functionality of Microsoft Visual Studio latest versions These tools executes the static analysis of the code like error detection without compiling the code. These tools provides enhanced features like error correction, code generation, syntax highlighting, optimization, formatting and many other features. VIII CONCLUSION Considering quality factor, it is not an easy task to examine and to avoid the complexity, several properties mainly Polymorphism factor in Object oriented design has proposed and paid special attention by Application developers and Software Engineering Society. This Paper mainly discussed on Polymorphism metrics related to Static and Dynamic behavior with respect to Object Oriented Analysis [2] and focused on the Comparison among Chidamber Kemmerer metrics, MOOD(Metrics for Object Oriented Design) metrics and Polymorphism metrics. It is noted that (NOC-SPD) (DIT-SPA) from Chidamber Kemmerer and Polymorphism metrics are highly correlated [2]. In addition to that this Paper also discusses about tools like E-MTRACE which deals with Polymorphic behavior. E-MTRACE is a tool that is developed to measure java applications [1]. This Polymorphic behavior metric is used to examine the interface that has most polymorphic dispatches. So these interfaces may introduce the basis for new technology frameworks and APIs. Moreover, it is necessary to note that the metrics and measures capture the valuable related data from the starting phases of the product development lifecycle giving Engineers a chance to evaluate early fault prone area and advancing the quality factor and to maintain the continuing capability of Software product.

Confession of Moral Bankruptcy Essay -- Sex Offenders Crime Essays

Confession of Moral Bankruptcy State and local governments are both challenged by the problems of sexual predators. This issue has been addressed at the federal level for many years, but now state and local governments are being given the responsibility to change policy. What this paper will examine are three major issues. This paper will examine what state and local governments are doing in context to the civil commitment issue. Secondly, once sexual predators are given the opportunity to return to society there is always the fear that they will commit crimes again. Therefore, all fifty states have some form of a sexual predator registry. Third, states and communities are beginning to prevent sexual predators from moving into areas where they are not identified by community notification laws, more commonly known as Megan’s Law. In order to address these problems, state and local governments are passing new legislation to help deal with these issues. In the last ten years, state and local governments have begun to legislate policy changes on the issue of sexual predators and most are still deciding how to make it work within their own locality. Once sexual predators have served their time in prison, there remains the daunting question of will they relapse back to their former state, or even a more fearful question of have they even been cured of this illness? According to John Leo of the US News and World Report, â€Å"The state has an obligation to defend the public from dangerous criminals. Is it really helpless to act if a violent inmate with a long record says he plans to mutilate and kill children when released? To say authorities can’t do anything but wait for a child to be murdered is a confession of moral bankruptcy.... ...iminary Report.† International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparitive Criminology. Galveston: Sage Publications, 2003. Office of the Attroney General, 2003, â€Å"Kilgore Files Richard Ausley Civil Commitment Petition - Convicted Pedophile Faces Criminal Trial Prior to Civil Commitment Hearing -† Retrieved on 4-25-04. http://www.oag.state.va.us/media%20center/Current%20AG%20News%20 Releases/080503_ PrimeTime, 2001, â€Å"Predators Among Us: PrimeTime Investigates Release of Dangerous Sexual Offenders† Retrived on 4-25-04. http://abcnews.go.com/sections/primetime/2020/PRIMETIME_010621_classof91_featur e.html Roberts, Julian V., et al. Penal Populism and Public Opinion. New York: Oxford Press, 2003. Teir, Robert and Kevin Coy. Approaches to Sexual Predators: Community Notification and Civil Commitment. New England Journal on Criminal and Civil Confinement 1997.

Relativism: The Tangible Theory Essay -- essays research papers

Relativism: The Tangible Theory Since the beginning of rational thought, philosophers have searched for the true meaning of morality. Many theorists have attempted to answer this question with reasoning, in an attempt to find a universal set of rules, or a way to distinguish right from wrong. Some theorists believe that this question is best answered by a single moral standard, while others debate if there can be a single solution. Cultural Relativism explores the idea that there can be no one moral standard that applies to everyone at any given time. The Kantian theory, on the other hand, states that a universal sense of duty, would most benefit humankind. I believe that the Cultural Relativist theory takes into consideration the different cultures that make up the population as a whole. The idea of universal truth in ethics, is a myth. The customs of different societies are all that exist. These customs can not be ‘correct' or ‘ incorrect' for that implies there is an independent standard of right and wrong by which they may be judged. In today's global community people are interacting more and we are now discovering, more then ever, how diverse cultures and people really are. For these reasons the Cultural Relativist theory best defines what morality is, and where it came from. Today all over the world people are communicating in ways never before imagined. Cultural Relativism believes that one set of morals will not adequately adapt to the individuality of all the cultures and subcultures in the world. What this means is that there is no one moral law that fits every situation at every time. There will always be exceptions to the rules. Cultural Relativism leaves the creation of moral and ethical standards to the community. The community then makes moral judgments based on its specific culture, history, and individuality. For these reasons Cultural Relativism helps the community, by letting the community set its own moral standards, rather than impose a set of morals, as the absolutists would suggest. Imposing a set of universal morals would not be able to compensate for all the different cultural differences that exist today. If a universal moral law were to be created, what criteria would be considered? Would one use each communities's religion, customs, laws, educational standards, or cult... ...the nations of the world the set of beliefs which he thought brought the most good and happiness, he would inevitably, after careful considerations of their relative merits, choose that of his own country. Everyone without exception believes his own native customs, and the religion he was brought up in, to be the best." And this discredits the possibility that one such person can come up with a set of morals, or a true way to calculate those morals, because in fact everyone is biased to his or her own moral beliefs. Absolutism is obviously not a feasible solution due to the fact that the cultures of the world are too radically diverse to ever be able to be classified under one set of moral and ethical guidelines. I believe the Utilitarian idea of maximizing the good of the whole is also not feasible, on account of everyone not agreeing on what makes them the most happy. The Kantinisen sense of duty is discredited in the same way, on account of everyone's sense of duty being different. Although there will never be a moral or ethical theory that clearly includes all cultures as morally right, the Relativist theory is by far the most sensible solution offered to us at this time.

Audit Proposal Essay

There are many different types of audits including internal, external, and information technology. Companies should be familiar with the types of audits that may possibly be used on an Accounting Information System (AIS). Knowing the different types of audits and where they are used will help a company be ready for an audit and make the process much smoother. There are some circumstances where auditing through a computer is not always beneficial. Auditors want to make sure they are completing their audits fully and appropriately to the best of their abilities. Types of audits used for each process Attestation, SAS 70, SAS 94, and Findings and Recommendations are four main types of Information Technology (IT) audits. If Kudler wants the auditor to provide assurance for each part of the system, an attestation audit could be used. An attestation audit can assist Kudler by issuing reports on examinations, reviews, or agreed-upon procedures. An attestation audit can provide Kudler with independent assurance on the reliability or validity of information related to the four systems under review (KPMG, 2011). A Findings and Recommendations audit can provide Kudler with other information about each system. This kind of audit includes the following: system implementations, security reviews, database application reviews, project management, IT infrastructure, and IT internal audit services. If Kudler chooses to use the Findings and Recommendations audit, this type will not produce an opinion, only a summary of the audit for each of the systems (Hunton, Bryant, & Bagranoff, 2004). An SAS 70 audit is to provide assurance about the effectiveness and existence of the company’s internal controls around a service provided to others. Kudler is not a service  provider. However, Kudler does transmit data to the Electronic Payment Clearing House for automatic submission of the credit card transactions to the applicable financial institutions. An SAS 70 could be beneficial because it is a way to prove that adequate controls are in place to protect the consumer through e-commerce. SAS 94 audits are performed with a financial statement audit and focus on the client’s AIS. It addresses the effect of IT on internal controls in a financial statement audit. Kudler will need a much broader assessment than an SAS 94. Most appropriate audit for each process There are many routes to perform an IT audit. This audit is internal and will look at both Information Technology General Controls (ITGC) and Application Controls. Specifically, the audit will focus on these categories: systems and applications, information processing facilities, management of IT and enterprise architecture, client/server, telecommunications, and intranets/extranets. The audit style will be via Findings and Recommendations as management will have to consider recommendations and the ultimate decision to make changes according to priority and budget. The audit will verify the systems and applications for efficiency and controls to ensure validity, integrity, and security of data and transactions. Kudler will need the completion of an audit on information processing facilities to assess physical conditions of the main housing units and the offsite locations to support the company’s Disaster Recovery Plan (DRP). This type of audit will evaluate the organizational structure and procedures to ensure that an efficient, controlled environment is in place. These relate to any telecommunication controls between client and server, the entire network, and any servers communicating eternally including firewalls. Auditors will assess two types of controls: security controls and access controls. Each of these types should include all three sub-controls: preventive, detective, and corrective. The AIS has an imperative need for controls to address any risks that may exist for every process and transaction. Security access controls are in place to protect data from being stolen, lost, or damaged. Access controls protect data from being released to non-authorized users, hackers, and other intruders. How the audits are conducted Kudler will conduct an information system audit by examining and evaluating  their present hardware and software. They will also examine their IT controls, systems security, risk management, and the adequacy of their current systems. They can carry out their marketing audit by evaluating the effectiveness of their marketing program and examining its capabilities. It will evaluate their functions in respect to their goals, mission, vision, and their values of Kudler, which is done externally. Kudler will examine their faculty, and their deficiencies will be identified. Another suggestion is equipment be audited, the maintenance, and an examination to determine if it’s being operated at the designed levels, safety set-up, security, and access issues. Their audit will be done by an external auditor who will examine their accounts, vouchers to support, financial information tests, evaluation of their financial statements, and also examine the internal control and make comments f or improvements. Events that prevent reliance on auditing through the computer Using computer-based accounting systems does have its disadvantages, such as certain laws pertaining to confidentiality, the requirement to protect against the loss of data through power failures, the infection of viruses, and the abundance of opportunities for hackers to steal data. Computer fraud is also a major worry; the need to initiate internal controls for all those who have access to the business’s information, particularly confidential customer information. An event that Kudler may run into with the need of stronger controls is a security breach, which entails stolen data. Kudler management can be held liable for the loss of personal customer data (University of Phoenix Virtual Organization Portal, 2013). Another event is a computer-based system with feeble controls over the data input procedures and processing, this requires the need for more thorough testing of financial transactions. The incorrect input of data can not only cause misrepresentation of financial statements in the form of incorrect asset valuations but because a mistake in data entry will give Kudler false analytical data such as sales and inventory. Lastly, an auditor will have to assume that auditing through the use of their computer-based method that their CPU and other hardware are operating properly (Bargnoff, N.A., Simkin, M.G, & Strand, C., 2008). Conclusion It is important for companies to stay positive throughout the audit process. There are many different audit processes such as Attestation, SAS70, and  SAS94 which are all effective audit strategies that may be used when auditing the company. Companies being audited should be familiar with these audit processes as well as how the audits are conducted to ensure that the process will be as smooth and stress free as possible. References Bargnoff, N.A., Simkin, M.G, & Strand, C. (2008). Core Concepts of Accounting Information Systems (10th ed.). The KPMG Survey of Corporate Responsibility Reporting 2013. 2014 KPMG International Cooperative. Retrieved July 10, 2013 from: http://www.kpmg.com/global/en/issuesandinsights/articlespublications/corporate-responsibility University of Phoenix Virtual Organization (2013). Kudler Fine Foods Intranet. Retrieved from: https://ecampus.phoenix.edu/secure/aapd/CIST/VOP/Business/Kudler2/intranet/index.asp

Acquisition of a new piece of equipment for coca-cola

Coco-Cola has plans of acquiring a new piece of equipment. The company is likely to get funding problems under the following scenarios Risk Coca Cola would run a financial risk problem depending on which source of finance they contemplate to use in financing this new project. A firm either utilizes its internally generated resources or borrows from outside. However, the internal sources especially the retained earnings may be insufficient compelling Coca Cola to borrow by issuing either debentures or preference shares. Such external sources of finance give rise to fixed interest charges, lead to financial riskness that may force Coca Cola to be bankrupt. (Bower, 1990) Cost This new project is a capital investment and by their nature, capital investments involve high initial cash outleys. (www.teachmefinance.com/capitalbudgeting.html).   In addition to the initial cost, Coca- Cola would also incur huge incidental costs related with the installing of this new equipment these include labor and carriage costs. More other funds would be incurred in employee training   on its usage . Coca Cola however would have to look into ways and means of getting   additional funds which are essential in   meeting   these costs. Politics Some board members of the decision-making organ of Coca Cola may not be comfortable with this investment plan and therefore may not pass it. The end result of this decision would be that the funds may be channeled to other projects. This is because Capital projects by their nature, need prioritization be done since there may be   insufficient funds of   financing   all the   viable projects that the company might have passed. Economical Factors The budgeted funds to fund this new project might be insufficient due to government changes on the taxation policies and any other legislation that may be inherent within the government system. Cost and benefit estimates It is estimated that the new equipment would generate the following after-tax cashflows: Year  Ã‚  Ã‚     before tax cash flows 1.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   (10,000) 2.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   1000 3.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   2500 4.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   3000 4.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   4000 5   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  7000 8  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   7000 9  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   5000 10  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   4500 [email  protected]% Net cash flows 16,800 The initial investment is $10000 (www. Swlearning.com/finances/students/capitalbgt.htm) REFERENCES Joseph L Bower, Managing the Resource Allocation Process, Harvard Business School Press, 1990.